Further evidence for an ongoing inflammatory state in PD comes from studies demonstrating increased levels of proinflammatory molecules (e.g., interleukins, TNF-α, interferon gamma) in patient blood and cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) as well as enhanced numbers of activated CD11b-positive microglia in post-mortem PD brains at autopsy compared with neurologically normal controls (McGeer et al. 1988; Barcia et al. 2004; El-Agnaf et al. 2006; Bartels and Leenders 2007; Brodacki et al. 2008; Bartels et al. 2010; Shi et al. 2011). This evidence concerns the gene TNF and Parkinson disease.