Thus, it seems possible that increased levels of miR-155 induced by either ectopic expression or TLR3 or TLR4 stimulation can reduce cellular susceptibility to HIV-1 infection by decreasing the expression levels of one or more HDFs, leading to the generation of an intracellular environment that is less conducive to productive HIV-1 infection. Here, TLR3 is linked to HIV-1 infection.