At the molecular level, a number of proto-oncogenes, tumor-suppressors and transducers of growth/survival signals such as NKX3.1, MSR1, Ki-67, Bcl-2, p16/CDKN2, p27, p53, GSTP1 and Cox-2, were found to be upregulated/disregulated in PIA, sometimes to an extent similar or identical to high-grade PIN or PCa (reviewed in refs. 4 and 5). Here, PTGS2 is linked to posterior cortical atrophy.