TNF and infection: WNV also induces a dramatic increase in several pro-inflammatory cytokines such as tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-α) and interleukin (IL)-1β and -6 [20], [21], [27] and chemokines such as MCP-1 and IP-10, which regulate leukocyte trafficking into the brain, and neuronal death after infection [27]–[29].