Inflammatory cytokines such as tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α), interleukin-1β (IL-1β), NF-κB and monocyte chemoattractant peptide-1 (MCP-1) may contribute to the development and progression of HF by promoting myocardial hypertrophy, activating matrix metalloproteinases, provoking contractile dysfunction, and inducing apoptosis [51]. Here, TNF is linked to hydrops fetalis.