TNF and cancer: Despite disappointing results from early clinical trials for recombinant TNFα, which showed severe toxicity after systemic exposure (5, 6), there is a continued effort to separate the unwanted toxicities from its potent apoptosis inducing activity by modifying TNF protein; for example, NGR-TNFα fusion protein (7) and TNFα-colloidal gold nanoparticles (8) are currently in clinical trails for treating human cancers.