In all three AKI models, basal levels of plasma TNF-alpha were below 10 pg/ml, but 2 h after LPS stimulation (Fig. 1a) plasma TNF-alpha levels rose to significantly higher levels in the glycerol-, gentamycin- and cisplatin-challenged mice than in control CD-1 mice (all P < 0.01). Here, TNF is linked to acute kidney injury.