INS and type 2 diabetes mellitus: On the other hand, inflammatory cytokines, such as TNF-α, are reported to contribute to T2D through activation of inflammatory pathways, including Jun N-terminal kinase (JNK) and inhibitor of κB kinase (IKKβ) (reviewed in [5]), both of which stimulate transcription of inflammatory pathway genes and phosphorylate insulin receptor substrate (IRS) and insulin receptors, interfering with normal insulin signaling [6], [7].