IRF3 and infection: We have observed that infection of murine primary keratinocytes (KCs) with Heat-VAC induced the production of IFN-β and CCL5 that is dependent on the cytosolic dsRNA sensing pathway mediated by MDA5/MAVS and transcription factor IRF3 (Dai and Deng, unpublished), supporting the viral RNA transcripts might be partially double-stranded.