TNF and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease: The synthesis of many inflammatory mediators such as TNFα; IL-4; IL-5; IL-8; regulated upon activation, normal T-cell-expressed and secreted (RANTES); and eotaxins, which are thought to be important in asthma and COPD pathogenesis, is regulated through the activation of p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) [32].