AR and Nephropathy: Our recent studies have shown that AR, an enzyme that was contemplated to reduce aldehyde-sugars such as glucose to corresponding alcohol such as sorbitol and cause diabetic complications including diabetic neuropathy, retinopathy and nephropathy, in fact more efficiently catalyzes the reduction of lipid peroxidation-generated lipid derived-aldehydes such as 4-hydroxynonenal (HNE) (Km HNE: 10-30 μM Vs.