TNF and infection: Taken together, we conclude that reduced pathological changes at the late stage of infection, as well as at clearance, and the absence of weight loss at late infection in inoculated mice that received CTC were due to up-regulation of IL-22 transcripts (i.e. a cytokine important in mucosal defense) at the peak stage of infection, and down-regulation of TNF-α, IL-1β, and IL-17A transcripts (i.e. cytokines involved in inflammation, innate and adaptive immunity) at the late stage of infection, relative to inoculated mice not given CTC.