TNF and influenza: Previous studies have shown that pro-inflammatory cytokines and chemokines including interferon (IFN) α/β, interleukin (IL)-1α, IL-1β, IL-6, IL-8, tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNFα), macrophage inflammatory protein (MIP)-1α, MIP-1β, and monocyte chemotactic protein (MCP)-1 are detected at elevated levels in the respiratory tracts of individuals during the acute phase of influenza infection [34], [35].