Patients with VHL–RCC had more CEPs and higher CEP:mCEC ratios than patients with VHL without RCC (CEPs, 2.96 cells μl−1vs 0.15 cells μl−1, P<0.01; CEP:mCEC, 1.36 vs 0.44, P=0.02) (Figures 5A and C). Here, VHL is linked to renal cell carcinoma.