VHL and renal cell carcinoma: Increased levels of HIF-1α and HIF-1β have been shown to correlate with increased mortality in a number of tumor types, including cervical cancer, breast cancer, non-small-cell lung cancer, ovarian cancer, head and neck cancer, and gastrointestinal stromal tumors.[11] In addition, loss of the von Hippel-Lindau (VHL) protein, which also results in increased levels of HIF-1α, is a primary cause of many cases of renal cell carcinoma (RCC), and has been implicated in pancreatic cancer and neuroendocrine tumors (NETs) as well.[12]