TNF and infection: Previous studies have reported that ART initiation in chronic infection is associated with a decline in circulating levels of cytokines/chemokines including IL-1β, IL-6, IL-10, TNFα and alpha/beta chemokines [39], [40], although other studies reported conflicting findings, such as no effect of ART on circulating levels of IL-6 and C-reactive protein.[41], [42] Further work is required to address whether these divergent results may be attributable to effects of the timing of ART initiation (during acute, early chronic or later-stage infection).