TNF and infection: A role for macrophages in human JUNV infection is also suggested by observations of productive infection of patient peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) during the acute phase of disease [34], as well as the increased levels of several cytokines (IFN-α, IL-6, IL-8, IL-10 and TNF-α) in patient serum that are known to be produced by, among others, macrophages [10], [11], [12].