TNF and infection: Surprisingly, despite the fact that several pro- and anti-inflammatory cytokines have been shown to be elevated in patients with severe and/or fatal JUNV infection [10], [11], [12], we could not identify any production of IFN-α, IFN-β, TNF-α, IL-6, IL-10 or IL-12 during in vitro infection of human monocytes or macrophages with JUNV.