Thus, the in vivo scenario with respect to relative levels of Smad 7, NFkB, IL1B and gastrin in gut biopsy samples of H. pylori infected asymptomatic and duodenal ulcer patients reflects the in vitro observation that differential expression of IL1B can modulate differentially the expression of both Smad 7 (this study) and NFkB (this study and [12]) which in turn may alter the gastrin levels in human gut in a predictable manner. Here, GAST is linked to duodenal ulcer.