TNF and viral infectious disease: To identify more specifically which sensing and signaling systems might be impaired by viral infection, we first profiled the responses of primary human fibroblasts to diverse exogenous stimuli, including a “mock” treatment (PBS), interferon alpha (IFNα), Tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-alpha), PMA plus ionomycin (I+P) [37], [50], which mimics antigen stimulation of leukocytes, polyadenylic acid, (poly(I-C)) [38] - a double-stranded RNA mimic, Escherichia coli 055:B5 lipopolysaccharide [37], [51] (LPS), and dexamethasone [52], [53], each at concentrations used in previous studies.