However MyD88, an adaptor molecule involved in the classical Drosophila or mammalian Toll signalling cascades, which together with the receptor associated kinase (IRAK) and TNF activated factor (TRAF6) allow NF-κB translocation to the nucleus (promoting expression of inducible inflammatory cytokines such as TNF-α) during gram-negative bacterial infection [46,78-80] was specifically up-regulated during PGN-B4 stimulation. Here, TNF is linked to gram-negative bacterial infections.