An alternative explanation for the observed minimal inhibitory effects of TGF-β1 on trans infection of transmitted/founder viruses could be the involvement of DC-SIGN-independent pathways including the use of alternate HIV-1 capture/binding molecules such as galactosyl ceramide (Gal-ceramide), DEC-205, DCIR [69], [70], [71], [72], [73], [74], [75]. Here, CD209 is linked to infection.