In addition to genetic influences, PON1 concentration and activity could be modified by lifestyle determinants such as smoking,[41, 42] vitamin C and E consumption,[43] and alcohol intake.[44] Therefore, studying PON1 levels and activity in conjunction with variation at the gene level gives a more complete view of the role of PON1 in the development of atherosclerosis.[37] There is also considerable interest in the potential pharmacological effects on PON1 activity. This evidence concerns the gene PON1 and atherosclerosis.