TNF and myelodysplastic syndrome: In the present report we exploited the possibility that irradiation, known to induce BM malignant transformation, namely secondary acute myeloid leukemias [20] and MDS [21], might act as an inducer of TNF-α in the BM microenvironment, and studied the consequences of such an increase in the incidence of BM cell apoptosis and subsequent onset of BM dysfunction.