Elevated cytokine (IL2, IL4, IL12p40, and IFNγ) and chemokine (CCL2, CCL3, and CCL5) levels were detected within 1 week of SHIV-RT infection of naïve macaques, but these were often lower or delayed in the HSV-2/SHIV-RT co-infected animals (Fig. 3B; although none of these differences reached statistical significance. Here, IL4 is linked to infection.