Possible causes are bleeding (gastrointestinal malignancy/severe infection), insufficient dietary intake (vitamins such as cobalamin and folate, iron, and general malnutrition), haemolytic anaemia (i.e. malignancies, infections, splenomegaly, and immune dysfunction), and changes in erythropoietin synthesis and/or bone marrow suppression. Here, EPO is linked to non-autoimmune hemolytic anemia.