Consistent with a Pf-enhanced TLR responsiveness, naturally ‘primed’ (in utero exposure) CBMCs produced more IFN-γ in response to both TLR3 (poly I : C) and TLR4 (LPS) ligand stimulation if the mother was infected with malaria during the last month of pregnancy, whereas CBMCs without prenatal malaria exposure had significantly higher TNF-α in response to the same ligands (99). Here, TLR3 is linked to malaria.