TNF and interstitial lung disease: However; several cytokines analyzed here and showing increased concentrations exhibit inhibitory effects on TGF-β1 expression (for example, IL-7 and TNF-α), indicating a contribution of TGF-β1-independent mechanisms in SSc-ILD proposed by others, such as autoantibodies, Th2 cytokines, growth factors, and several other cytokines/chemokines [42,43].