TNF and HIV-1 infection: The mechanism of HIV-1 gp120-induced polyclonal B cell activation in chronic HIV-1 infection may be mediated by cytokines such as IL-15 and TNF-α [49],[50], by translocation of bacteria and lipopolysaccharide across gut barriers [51], by gp120 binding as a superantigen to VH3 Ig+ B cells [52], and/or gp120 binding to mannose C-type lectin receptors on a subset of B cells [53].