Of note, many of the cytokine and chemokine genes induced upon infection (eg. IFNβ, IL-8, IL-11, IL-15 and CCL5) were found to be cytokine-independent (see Additional file 6: Table S6), indicating that the expression of some cytokines and chemokines likely occurs as part of the primary response to T. cruzi. Here, CCL5 is linked to infection.