TGFB1 and malaria: Conversely, low levels of regulatory cytokines such as TGF-ß have been associated with acute [20] and severe malaria [21],[22], a relative deficiency in IL-10 was seen in those who succumbed to severe malaria [23], significantly lower ratios of IL-10 to TNF-α were found in patients with severe malarial anaemia [24],[25], and high ratios of IFN-γ, TNF-α and IL-12 to TGF-β or IL-10 were associated with decreased risk of malaria but increased risk of clinical disease in those who became infected [26].