TNF and inflammatory bowel disease: In many forms of IBD, including CD, neonatal necrotizing enterocolitis and UC, this extreme hyperosmolarity contributes to the exacerbation of intestinal inflammation via upregulation of inflammatory molecules such as matrix metalloproteinase (MMP)-9 [6], epithelial cytokine response-interleukin (IL)-8 [7], [8], [9], [10], IL-1 [11], [12], [13], and tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α [13], downregulation of vascular cell adhesion molecule (VCAM)-1 [14], or methylation of protein phosphatase 2A [15].