In bronchial epithelium, there is an increase in p65 expression (regarded as NFκB activation) in COPD patients and smokers with normal lung function, compared to normal control subjects [43] and investigations of NFκB activity in sputum from COPD show an increase in NFκB translocation, possibly in macrophages, during an exacerbation in COPD subjects [17,18]. This evidence concerns the gene RELA and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease.