TNF and Timothy syndrome: Some studies have evaluated cytokine mRNA gene expression in trachoma and found that transforming growth factor beta (TGF-β) and the pro-inflammatory cytokines, interleukin-1 beta (IL-1β) and tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-α), were significantly elevated in trachomatous follicular inflammation (TF) and trachomatous scarring (TS) [11]–[13].