CSF3 and anemia: As an alternative to transfusions, studies have explored the efficacy of erythropoiesis-stimulating agents (ESAs) [alone and in combination with granulocyte colony-stimulating factor (G-CSF)] to correct MDS-induced anaemia by overcoming the inhibitory effects of pro-apoptotic cytokines, promoting survival of erythroid progenitors and enhancing erythropoiesis (Hellstrom-Lindberg et al, 1998, 2003; Hellstrom-Lindberg, 2005; Musto et al, 2005; Spiriti et al, 2005; Stasi et al, 2005; Balleari et al, 2006; Mannone et al, 2006).