Among a group of Kenyan car washers with high levels of exposure toS. mansoni infection, Secor et al. [100] have shown that patients with active schistosomiasis exhibit increased expression of the chemokine receptors and HIV-1 co-receptors, CCR5 and CXCR4, on peripheral blood CD4 T cells and monocytes. Here, CD4 is linked to schistosomiasis.