However, the observation of nonactivated influenza A virus-specific CD8+ T-cells (Figure 1D), in contrast to CMV- or EBV-specific CD8+ T-cells (p < 0.01), strongly suggests that the stimulation of these cells associated with HIV-1 infection is due to reactivation of pathogens such as CMV and EBV, rather than as a result of bystander activation. This evidence concerns the gene CD8A and HIV-1 infection.